image/svg+xml59 VIII/1/2017 InterdIscIplInarIa archaeologIca natural scIences In archaeology homepage: http://www.iansa.eu People “on the Margin”: A Medieval Cemetery in Český Brod – Malechov (Central Bohemia) Jan Frolík a* , Petra Stránská a , Jitka Votrubová b , Barbora Emmerová b,d , Daniel Vaněk b,c a Institute of Archaeology Prague, CAS, Letenská 4, 118 01, Prague 1, Czech Republic b Forensic DNA Service, Bulovka 1606/1, 180 81 Prague 8, Czech Republic c Charles University in Prague, 2nd Faculty of Medicine, V Úvalu 84, 150 06 Prague 5, Czech Republic d Charles University in Prague, Faculty of Science, Albertov 6, 128 43 Prague 2, Czech Republic 1. Introduction The vast majority of the population buried during the High Middle Ages in accordance with church rules in cemeteries or at the parish cemetery church (Unger 2000). One exception is the Jewish community with its separate burial grounds (Cymbalak, Staňková 2014). Graves in the areas of execution are another specifc case (Sokol 2003). There are also some isolated graves, or numerically small groups, outside these areas, where usually the interpretation is lacking. Such an isolated group of graves was discovered during a systematic reconstruction of the underground sewerage and other infrastructure in some streets and squares of Český Brod (District of Kolín, Central Bohemia), reconstruction work which has been ongoing since the 1990s. In 2006–2007, sewerage work excavations were conducted in Prokopa Velikého Street, which forms the axis of Kouřimské předměstí (Kouřim Suburb). The street starts at Kouřimská brána (Kouřim Gate), crosses the Šembera stream and continues towards the town of Kolín (historically towards the town of Kouřim). Today, this part of Český Brod bears the name Malechov (Figure 1).Features from the 13 th to 19 th centuries were discovered in the course of the sewerage renovation work. A larger, more-continuous area was then excavated just in front of house No. 407. The hole dug for the sewage connection to this house contained three disturbed skeleton graves with fragments of medieval pottery in its backfll. Since the graves were situated at a level at which they were endangered by the new roadway, it was decided to make an extensive rescue excavation. A trench pit of 6.2×3.2 m was outlined at both sides of the sewage connection (Figure 2). This part of the excavation took part in June 2007 (Frolík 2007).The clearly defned group of graves in the vicinity of the main road leading into the city raised the question of interpretation. Such an interpretation was made possible on the basis of the most accurate dating by archaeology and by the use of methods of the natural sciences (anthropology, Volume VIII ● Issue 1/2017 ● Pages 59–75 *Corresponding author. E-mail: frolik@arup.cas.cz ARtICLe INFo Article history: Received: 22 th December 2015Accepted: 7 th April 2017DOI: http://dx.doi.org/ 10.24916/iansa.2017.1.5 Key words: skeletal remainspaleopathological analysisForestier’s diseaseBekhterev’s diseaseshort tandem repeatsY-chromosomehaplogroup haplotype DNA extraction ABStRACt Six graves situated on the edge of the settled town suburb of Český Brod have been dated to the 2 nd half of the 15 th century. The group of graves situated outside the regular cemetery, and with one exception reverently buried individuals, raised the question regarding its interpretation. Anthropological study identifed six men of diferent age with many post-traumatic changes on the bones, excessive physical strain and numerous other pathologies. DNA-based examination ruled out the possibility that they were members of minority groups (Jews, Gypsies). People buried on this site are interpreted as people in a marginal position in contemporary society.
image/svg+xmlIANSA 2017 ● VIII/1 ● 59–75Jan Frolík, Petra Stránská, Jitka Votrubová, Barbora Emmerová, Daniel Vaněk: People “on the Margin”: A Medieval Cemetery in Český Brod – Malechov (Central Bohemia) 60 genetics), based mainly on the verifcation of a possible relationship between the buried individuals. Anthropology could give the essential knowledge about the physical condition of the buried, their illness or injuries. The selection of the samples for DNA analysis was based on visual observations of the skeletal remains. It was decided to use only intact teeth as these provide a very high success rate (Katzmarzyk 2007). 2. Description of the Site and Finds2.1 Description of the Terrain The terrain at the site was rather simple. The subsoil consisted of weathered rock (red or rusty mudstone) at a depth of 0.9–1.2 m below the roadway surface. The individual graves (A, B, C, F and G) and also two shallow pits (feature D with a depth of 0.17 m and feature E with 0.42 m) were deepened Figure 1. Český Brod – Prokopa Velikého Street, excavated area marked with a black circle on the Cadastral contour map.
image/svg+xmlIANSA 2017 ● VIII/1 ● 59–75Jan Frolík, Petra Stránská, Jitka Votrubová, Barbora Emmerová, Daniel Vaněk: People “on the Margin”: A Medieval Cemetery in Český Brod – Malechov (Central Bohemia) 61 into the subsoil and had the same backfll (red-brown clayey silt [45%] with interlayers of grey clayey silt [45%] and a small amount of charcoal and daub). The pit features and graves were covered with a single layer – dark-grey sandy-loamy soil [80%] with stones (mudstone [15%], pebbles [3%] and small brick fragments [2%]) – of a thickness of 0.2–0.5 m. This layer was covered with a pavement of quarry stones and dark-brown soil up to 0.3 m in thickness, which had survived only in the northern half of the trench pit. At some spots there was a charcoal interlayer below this pavement and above it the 0.3-metre-thick sand bedding of the current pavement. The terrain was disturbed by modern excavations (the holes from former old and recent sewerage work). The trench dug for the cables that had partially disturbed graves A and B, and also feature E, was situated approximately in the centre of the uncovered area. 2.2 Stratigraphy The stratigraphic situation of the found features and graves is extremely simple. The subsoil consists of rock, into which the individual features were deepened. This situation proves the clearing of the terrain, consisting of the original soil’s removal. The features are up to three times superimposed. For example, settlement feature D has been disturbed by grave G, which was subsequently covered or disturbed by graves A and F. At the same time, grave A has disturbed grave B (the skull from this grave was moved into the backfll of grave A). We encountered a double superposition in the case of graves C2 and C1. Settlement feature E holds a solitary stratigraphic position; we consider that its distance to the closest grave G precludes a possible mutual contact (the surface between them was disturbed by sewerage work). Interestingly, the graves show a double superposition, which proves that the area was not just used once for burial, but used repeatedly – at least for a short time. The graves and the other features were superimposed by a single settlement layer, which itself was covered by the modern road pavement. The pavement covered the section containing graves A, B, F and G. Above the pavement, fnally, the whole surface was superimposed by today’s roadway and its bedding.According to their orientation, the graves can be divided into two groups: graves B, C1, C2 and G (thus all the stratigraphically-older graves + grave C1) are oriented northwest-southeast. However, the younger graves, A and F, are aligned southwest-northeast, which may refect two diferent burial periods.The graves can be dated on the grounds of the fnds in the backfll of their grave pits, mainly from the ceramic fragments. The youngest elements belong to the 15 th century (vessel fragments with glaze on their inside and roller-stamp decoration); most of the graves show a mixture of fragments from the 12 th to 15 th centuries. Pottery from older features Figure 2. Český Brod – Prokopa Velikého Street, in front of house No. 407; excavated area with graves highlighted: light grey – the younger graves A and F; dark grey – the other graves; drawn by P. Pinc, digitized by D. Dvořáček. 0 1 m
image/svg+xmlIANSA 2017 ● VIII/1 ● 59–75Jan Frolík, Petra Stránská, Jitka Votrubová, Barbora Emmerová, Daniel Vaněk: People “on the Margin”: A Medieval Cemetery in Český Brod – Malechov (Central Bohemia) 62 that were disturbed by the digging of the original grave pits had come into the graves. Graves G (containing ceramics decorated with roller stamp and glaze on the inside) and grave B (without any ceramic fragments) are the oldest. With the only exception of grave A, the general position of the buried individual conforms to the usual habit. The person in grave A, according to the position of their hands, had been irreverently thrown into the pit. The absence of the remains of any items of clothing (buttons, belt buckles or shoes) shows that the deceased were either naked or wrapped, for example, in only a blanket. There are no traces of cofns (the occasional fnds of nails do not prove their existence) and the position of the skeleton in grave A excludes the existence of a cofn.The terrain situation does not clearly show whether the grave group was complete or only formed part of a larger group; it did not continue westwards, northwards or eastwards, in the area of the excavated roadway. The burials could have continued below the house (the margin of the trench pit was formed by some digging for former sewerage work); however, we are lacking convincing evidence. It is not at all clear if the graves were in some way marked at the surface. Multiple burials in one pit (C1 and C2) and the spatial delimitation of graves A, B, G and F could be used as arguments for a marking on the surface. On the other hand, the mutual relation between the grave pairs B+G and A+F points to the opposite conclusion.Within the scope of the topography of Český Brod, the grave group is situated on a main arterial road leading to the former royal, and now regional, towns of Kouřim and Kolín; in view of the terrain confguration and the position of the Kouřimská brána (Kouřim Gate), this road must have had, more or less, the same course in the past. According to research undertaken in 2006–2007, the Kouřimské předměstí (Kouřim Suburb) spread along this way or road since at least the 13 th century and the inhabited area ended nearby to the graves. So the graves were thus situated at the margin of a suburb. The common inhabitants of Český Brod were buried in the churchyard of St Gotthard (in the town centre), and, after 1560, at the Trinity Chapel south-east of the town centre (Poche et al. 1977, 210–211), which chronologically excludes the grave group in question. 2.3 Description of Individual Graves 2.3.1 Grave A Oblong grave pit with rounded corners (preserved length: 1.75 m, max. width: 0.45 cm, depth: 0.52 m – Figure 3). The lower part of the pit was destroyed by the sewage connection work. The skeleton was stretched out, with outstretched legs, the right arm was bent at the elbow and laid across the chest and the left arm framed the head. The lower half of the lower limbs was missing (right leg from the knee downwards, left leg in the ankle). Orientation: south-west (head), north-east; backfll: red-brown loamy earth (30%) with smaller stones (mudstone 70%); fnds: pottery fragments, imprints of plaster/mortar, building material, a bronze wire, a coin (bags 1205 and 1206) and human bones (bags 1209–11). The other human bones had been lifted in the course of the excavation for the sewage work (bags 1238 and 1239 – without any diferentiation between graves A and F). A human skull (bag 1208 – see grave B) was found in the backfll (above the skeleton). Figure 3. Český Brod – Prokopa Velikého Street, in front of house No. 407; graves A and F, drawn by P. Pinc, digitized by D. Dvořáček. 0 1 m
image/svg+xmlIANSA 2017 ● VIII/1 ● 59–75Jan Frolík, Petra Stránská, Jitka Votrubová, Barbora Emmerová, Daniel Vaněk: People “on the Margin”: A Medieval Cemetery in Český Brod – Malechov (Central Bohemia) 63 2.3.2 Grave B Oblong grave pit with rounded corners (preserved length: 0.95 m, max. width: 0.7 m, depth: 0.52 m). The lowest part of the grave pit was preserved as an unclear imprint in the east wall of the trench dug for a sewage connection, so the original length of the grave pit can be estimated at 1.95 m. The lower half of the grave pit was destroyed by the sewage work (Figure 4). The skeleton was stretched out with slightly bent arms. The skull was missing (moved during the excavation of grave pit A into its backfll – see above ). The lower part of the skeleton, including the pelvis, is lost; orientation: west-north-west (head), east-south-eastwards; backfll: cf. grave A; fnds: only human bones (bags 1212 and 1213). Additional human bones had already been found during the excavation for the sewage connection (bag 1241). 2.3.3 Grave C1 Oblong grave pit with rounded corners (preserved length: 1.25 m, max. width: 0.53 m, depth: 0.51 m). The upper half of the grave pit had been removed during the excavation for the sewage work (Figure 5). The skeleton laid stretched out, legs outstretched, right arm bent and pointing to the pelvis, left arm outstretched. The upper part from the pelvis upwards was removed; orientation: west (head), eastwards; backfll: red- Figure 4. Český Brod – Prokopa Velikého Street, in front of house No. 407, grave B, drawn by P. Pinc, digitized by D. Dvořáček. Figure 5. Český Brod – Prokopa Velikého Street, in front of house No. 407, grave C1, drawn by P. Pinc, digitized by D. Dvořáček. 0 1 m 0 1 m
image/svg+xmlIANSA 2017 ● VIII/1 ● 59–75Jan Frolík, Petra Stránská, Jitka Votrubová, Barbora Emmerová, Daniel Vaněk: People “on the Margin”: A Medieval Cemetery in Český Brod – Malechov (Central Bohemia) 64 brown loamy earth (10%) with smaller stones (mudstone 90%); fnds: pottery fragments, fragments of iron items – bags 1216 and 1223 and human bones (bags 2019–20). Additional human bones had been lifted out during the digging for the sewage work (bag 1242 – without diferention between C1 and C2). 2.3.4 Grave C2 The grave pit with rounded corners continued below skeleton C1 (preserved length: 1.2 m, max. width: 0.52 m, depth: 0.58 m). The upper part of the grave was removed in the course of the digging for the sewage connection (Figure 6). The other part of the grave pit was not found during the work for the sewage connection; the grave pit could have been 2 m long at most. The skeleton was stretched out with outstretched legs, its upper part (including pelvis) has been removed; orientation: westwards (head), eastwards; backfll: cf. grave C1; fnds: pottery fragments, fragments of iron items (bag 1228) and human bones (bag 1226). 2.3.5 Grave F Oblong grave pit with rounded corners (preserved length: 1.1 m, max. width: 0.47 cm, depth: 0.59 m). The lower Figure 6. Český Brod – Prokopa Velikého Street, in front of house No. 407, grave C2, drawn by P. Pinc, digitized by D. Dvořáček. Figure 7. Český Brod – Prokopa Velikého Street, in front of house No. 407, grave G, drawn by P. Pinc, digitized by D. Dvořáček. 0 1 m 0 1 m
image/svg+xmlIANSA 2017 ● VIII/1 ● 59–75Jan Frolík, Petra Stránská, Jitka Votrubová, Barbora Emmerová, Daniel Vaněk: People “on the Margin”: A Medieval Cemetery in Český Brod – Malechov (Central Bohemia) 65 part of the pit had been removed during the sewage work (Figure 3). The skeleton was stretched out with outstretched legs (?), right arm was outstretched, left arm was bent and pointing to the pelvis. The lower limbs were removed (approximately at mid-thigh); orientation: south-south-west (head), north-north-eastwards; backfll: cf. grave A; fnds: pottery fragments, fragments of iron items (bags 1215, 1224) and human bones (bag 2025). 2.3.6 Grave G Oblong grave pit with one preserved rounded corner (preserved length: 1.35 m, max. width: 0.45 cm, depth: 0.75 m). The lower part of the pit had been removed during the digging for the new sewerage work (Figure 7). The skeleton was stretched out with outstretched legs, both arms slightly bent and the palms lay on the pelvis margin. The lower limbs were removed (right leg from mid-calf, Figure 8. Český Brod – Prokopa Velikého Street, in front of house No. 407, ceramic fragments in the backfll of individual graves: 1–8 – grave A; 9–16 – layer above grave C1; 17 – grave C1; 18 – grave G; 19–28 grave F; drawn by V. Pincová.
image/svg+xmlIANSA 2017 ● VIII/1 ● 59–75Jan Frolík, Petra Stránská, Jitka Votrubová, Barbora Emmerová, Daniel Vaněk: People “on the Margin”: A Medieval Cemetery in Český Brod – Malechov (Central Bohemia) 66 left from the knee downwards), head and most of the right arm and right part of the chest; orientation: north-west (head), south-eastwards; backfll: cf. grave A; fnds: pottery fragments, fragments of iron items (bags 1227) and human bones (bags 2029–31). Pottery fragments (bag 1237) had already been found while documenting the excavation for the sewerage work in grave A, which would place them into the backfll of grave G. 3. Results3.1 Analysis of the Archaeological Finds The fnds from the backfll of graves A, C1, C2, F and G were analysed; grave B did not contain any fnds. The contents of the settlement feature D, which was disturbed by the graves, were relied on for the dating. The chronologically-last fnd assemblage stems from the layer that, in two distinct Figure 9. Český Brod – Prokopa Velikého Street, in front of house No. 407, ceramic fragments from the layer above graves A and F, drawn by V. Pincová.
image/svg+xmlIANSA 2017 ● VIII/1 ● 59–75Jan Frolík, Petra Stránská, Jitka Votrubová, Barbora Emmerová, Daniel Vaněk: People “on the Margin”: A Medieval Cemetery in Český Brod – Malechov (Central Bohemia) 67 parts, covered graves A and F and independently also C1. Non-stratifed fnds from the feld walking and cleaning of the surface, as well as fnds from the excavations for the sewerage work, have been omitted since they were all located out of position. There is a large amount of archaeological material from the rescue excavations in Český Brod for the years 1994–2014, which for the most part has never been published. The evaluation of the pottery material can be backed up by published assemblages from the centre of Český Brod (Frolík 1996), and from the excavations of the municipal fortifcation (Ebel et al. 1998; Frolík 1998 – Figure 8; Figure 9).Two fnd complexes belong to grave A: one from the backfll (32 pieces, 265 grams), and a second from the layer above the grave, which also covered grave F (see below). The frst fnd complex is important for the dating. It consists mainly of coarse ceramic ware of brown to grey-brown shades (26 fragments) with cornice rims sometimes decorated with a double groove below the neck. Reduction-fred ceramics is represented by undecorated fragments and a tiny rim in the shape of a cornice (2 fragments). All these fragments may be dated to the late 14 th to 15 th centuries. Two fragments with glaze on the inside belong among the youngest pieces. The oldest residuum is represented by a handle with two openings, whose technology corresponds to 13 th –14 th -century ware. The backfll of the grave also delivered a small fragment of brick and mortar. Both are indicative of a bricked-up building nearby. Further, we found a small fragment of bronze wire and two small glass fragments (4 grams). One glass fragment (opaque, today a corroded fragment of white glass) stems from the margin of the foot of an unidentifed vessel; the second is a small fragment from the body of an unidentifed vessel with optic decoration. These can hardly be dated, but do not contradict their dating to the 14 th –15 th centuries.Important fnds from backfll are small, extremely-corroded pieces of small coins. Careful work by the conservation laboratory have given the conclusion that the coin is a contemporary forgery of round money, mimicking the coins of the town of Görlitz in Upper Lusatia from the second half of the 15 th century (Militký 2016).The backfll of grave C1 yielded only three ceramic fragments (a total of 16 grams). Two belong to a ceramic of fne material with inside glaze, which started to appear during the course of the 15 th century and continued into the 16 th century. The fragment of a pipkin with remains of brown-yellow glaze is clearly identifable. Another fragment of light coarse ware stems from the same period. The backfll also contains the fragments of two nails.Two ceramic fragments stem from the backfll of the lower-situated grave C2 (a total of 7 grams). An atypical fragment of the body is covered with yellow-brown glaze on the inside; another bottom fragment belongs to the oxidation-fred ware of the 14 th –15 th centuries. The backfll further contains a tiny amorphous iron fragment.The backfll of grave F contains a total of 74 ceramic fragments (341 grams) that belong to three diferent technological groups. Eleven fragments are attributed to reduction-fred ware of mostly grey shades. Their rims (cornices with grooves on the rim margins) and decoration (roller stamp motif in a chain-like arrangement) and thin-walled manufacture belong among their youngest features, which appeared in the course of the 15 th or start of the 16 th centuries. Fragments with a roller stamp decoration most probably belong to a single vessel (6 fragments of 14 grams). Roller stamp decoration is present on an oxidised fragment with yellow-brown glaze on its inside. The fragment of a pipkin with traces of yellow-brown glaze counts among the younger elements. Other fragments are coarse ware of grey-brown shades with cornice rims. Their decoration consists of a simple groove. A fragment from the body of vessels of the so-called “hillfort-tradition” ware from the 12 th –13 th centuries and a simply-profled conically-cut rim of a bowl (14 th –15 th centuries) are residua. In addition, one fragment of a nail is recorded.Grave G contained 21 ceramic fragments (207 grams), to which can be added three fragments from the hole dug for an earlier sewage connection (20 grams). These are fragments from the bodies and bottoms of partially-reduced ware with a surface in various grey colours (14 fragments); they are only occasionally decorated (with a double groove on the shoulders) and belong to the 14 th and 15 th centuries. The rest of the fragments of coarse ware of light shades belong to the same period. Only the fragment of a lid and a nail fragment are identifed.The largest assemblage stems from a layer that covered graves A and F (with a total of 205 pieces, 1801 grams). The assemblage contains predominantly coarse oxidised ware with cornice rims or simpler profles. The decoration consists of simple, double or multiple grooves on the shoulders. Roller-stamp decoration occurs in three cases, in one case directly below the outer surface of the rim. There are identifed pots, vessels with handles and lids. The coarse ware shows the same features (oval rims or rims in the shape of cornices, decoration consisting of a simple or double groove on the shoulders). Apart from pots, vessels with a handle and lids, there are only bowls. This part of the assemblage can be dated to the 14 th –15 th centuries with most elements belonging to the 15 th century. An older residuum (14 th century) is represented by fragments of bowl rims and a reconstructed burner. The fragments of roller-stamp-decorated ware with glaze on the inside belong to the youngest features (15 th –16 th centuries). Also found was a fragment of a lead tube of uncertain use.Another assemblage comes from a separated block of layers that covered grave C1. It consists of 40 ceramic fragments (175 grams). Its composition technologically corresponds to the same group as the aforementioned example; however, with a distinct distribution. The reduced coarse ware is represented by two fragments (one with a simple rim), and 19 fragments belonging to the oxidised coarse ware (thick rims with simple profles, vessels with handles, beakers). Also, 13 fragments belong to vessels with glaze on their inside (oval rims, handles). Four fragments are an older residuum (ceramics of the “hillfort-tradition” ware from the 13 th century). It is recorded a younger
image/svg+xmlIANSA 2017 ● VIII/1 ● 59–75Jan Frolík, Petra Stránská, Jitka Votrubová, Barbora Emmerová, Daniel Vaněk: People “on the Margin”: A Medieval Cemetery in Český Brod – Malechov (Central Bohemia) 68 intrusion as well (four fragments of glazed ware from the 18 th –19 th centuries). A ceramic disc cut out from a sherd with yellow or green-yellow glaze on the inside was also found. In addition, there are recorded fragments of slag (241 grams), two brick fragments (?) and one nail.The settlement feature D contains a total of 48 ceramic fragments of 368 grams. The greater part of this material belongs to the “hillfort-tradition” ware with a mica temper, which only appears in Český Brod by around 1300. The fragment of a four-leaved bottle (?) rim is among the older elements and stems from the 13 th century. Massive storage vessels or bowls are characteristic of the 14 th century; the fragment of a pot with cornice rims can be dated to the same century. Regardless of the majority of the older ceramics (13 th century), the feature D is dated only to the 14 th century. The assemblage has, in addition, ten fragments of nails, one of which has a larger head.From the other fnds, the fragments of two hooves (one from a layer above feature E, and a second from the backfll of older sewage trench work) should be mentioned, which can be cited in support of the existence of a road at this place. 3.2 Anthropological Studies of the Buried The sex of the skeletons was primarily determined based on pelvic characteristics (Houët et al. 1995; Brůžek 2002). In this way we were able to evaluate four individuals (graves A, C1, F, G) in our assemblage. In the absence of pelvic bones, we used morphological characteristics of the skulls (Acsádi, Nemeskéri 1970; Ferembach et al. 1979) or other parts of the skeleton (Novotný 1985) and the robustness of the skeleton generally (graves B, C2). The evaluation of age in the adults was substantially more problematic, especially in the case of individuals older than 35 years. Wherever the state of preservation allowed, we conducted a complex evaluation of all signs of skeleton biological age, i.e. the state of symphysis (McKern, Stewart 1957; Nemeskéri et al. 1960; Gilbert, McKern 1973), the state of the auricular surface of the pelvis (Lovejoy et al. 1985; Schmitt 2005), and teeth wear (Lovejoy 1985). We also took into account the state of the cranial suture (Meindl, Lovejoy 1985). Last, but not least, we also evaluated the overall state of the skeleton, i.e. the degree of degenerative growth changes on the vertebral column and appendicular joints (Stloukal, Vyhnánek 1976). We applied the method of Breitinger and Bach (Breitinger 1937; Bach 1965) to evaluate the stature. Pathological changes were evaluated according to Ortner (2003) and were consulted with J. Likovský. 3.2.1 Grave A The skeletal remains are relatively well-preserved; however, the lower limbs were disturbed by the sewage excavation work – the right leg from the shank downwards missing, the left lacking the small foot bones. The skull is medium robust in nature or with a robust articulated area for the insertion of neck muscles. The teeth are moderately abraded and show calculus (dental plaque). The bones of the postcranial are robust, with a marked relief for muscle attachments. Metrical Figure 10. Český Brod – Prokopa Velikého Street, in front of house No. 407, grave A: healed fracture of the left radius and ankylosis of the forearm, wrist and metacarpus; dorsal view, photographed by P. Stránská. and morphological analysis of the pelvis has proven this to be a male pelvis. The measurements characterise the skull as hyperbrachycranial, stenometopic, eurymandibular. The femurs are platymeric, the left tibia eurycnemic. The body height is estimated based on Breitinger at 171.5 cm, which falls into the category of tall body heights. The skeleton shows numerous pathologies: there are seven intravital tooth losses, a superfuous dental bud in the sutura palatina , a healed fracture or incomplete fracture of seven ribs on the left and at least three ribs on the right, a deformational spondylosis in the C5–C7 and Th8–Th10 spine sections, spondylarthrosis of the thoracic vertebrae, lighter arthritic changes in the area of the sacroiliac joints, cortical defects on both clavicles at the fossa costoclavicularis , a healed fracture of the left radius and ankylosis of the both forearm bones, carpal and metacarpal bones (Figure 10).
image/svg+xmlIANSA 2017 ● VIII/1 ● 59–75Jan Frolík, Petra Stránská, Jitka Votrubová, Barbora Emmerová, Daniel Vaněk: People “on the Margin”: A Medieval Cemetery in Český Brod – Malechov (Central Bohemia) 69 Conclusion: the skeletal remains belong to an adult man, age category maturus I–II (45–60 years). 3.2.2 Grave B The skull of this individual belongs in the backfll of grave A, the preserved parts being: a major part of the spine and ribs, both shoulder clavicles and the long bones of both upper limbs. The lower half of the skeleton had been disturbed by recent excavation work; the pelvis and lower limbs are thus missing. The skeleton is robustly built with developed muscle attachments on the neck and long limb bones. Teeth strongly abraded, sometimes to the roots. The body height is estimated at 167.8±4.5 cm, i.e. it falls into above-average category. A number of pathologies are observed on the skeleton: in Th7–Th11 the anterior longitudinal ligament of the thoracic spine is ossifed (difuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis/DISH/ Forestier’s disease ), on the spine, from C3 to Th1, ankylosing spondylitis ( Bekhterev’s disease ; Figure 11) and costovertebral ankylosis on the left side at Th12, deformational spondylosis of the lumbar vertebrae and healed rib injuries.Conclusion: skeletal remains of an old man, age category senilis . 3.2.3 Grave C1 The right radius and ulna, fragments of the left forearm and the small bones of both hands; additionally, the larger part of both pelvises and the bones of both lower limbs are preserved. The skeleton is robustly built, shows weak to moderately marked muscle attachments. Metrical and morphological analysis of the pelvis bones clearly proves them to be male. Both femurs were eurymeric, the right tibia eurycnemic, the left tibia mesocnemic. The estimated body height of 173.2±4.5 cm corresponds to the category of tall.Conclusion: remains of a fully-grown man, age category adultus I–II (25–40 years). Figure 11. Český Brod – Prokopa Velikého Street, in front of house No. 407, grave B: spine from ventral and lateral view with Bekhterev’s disease extending from C3 to C7 and Forestier’s disease extending from Th7 to Th11, photographed by P. Stránská.
image/svg+xmlIANSA 2017 ● VIII/1 ● 59–75Jan Frolík, Petra Stránská, Jitka Votrubová, Barbora Emmerová, Daniel Vaněk: People “on the Margin”: A Medieval Cemetery in Český Brod – Malechov (Central Bohemia) 70 3.2.4 Grave C2 Preserved are only the long bones of both legs and the small bones of both feet, which belong to a moderately robust body with marked muscle attachments. To estimate the sex gender, we used the talus bone and calcaneus (heel bone) (Novotný 1985). Both femurs are stenomeric, the right tibia eurycnemic. The skeleton shows some pathological changes: the talus bone and calcaneus have grown together, showing progressed secondary arthrosis; secondary arthrosis can be seen on the distal joint surface of the left shin and calf, weak arthritic changes on both margins of larger joint surfaces.Conclusion: unidentifable individual, most probably male, age category adultus II – maturus I (35–50 years). 3.2.5 Grave F The skull is slightly damaged; the axial skeleton, both arms and both pelvis bones and fragments of both femurs are preserved. The skull is robust, showing moderate modelling of the nuchal area, the neck showing indications of bathrocephaly. Most of the teeth are preserved, slight to medium abraded. The third lower molar on the left shows caries; the frst molar on the right was lost during its lifetime. The bones of the postcranial skeleton display a medium to robust structure with strong muscle attachments. The morphological and metric signs are markedly male. The skull is hyperbrachycranial, metriometopic and mesomandibular; the eye sockets are mesoconchial. The left femur is eurymeric. The body height was estimated from the humerus at 166.2±4.5 cm. Apart from dental diseases, we found other pathologies: exostosis of the right temporal bone, heterotopic ossifcation of the dorsal surface of the distal third of the diaphysis of the right femur, myositis ossifcans traumatica on the right femur (Figure 12), post-traumatic adhesion of the intermediate and distal hand phalanges, cortical defects ( fossa costoclavicularis) on both clavicles.Conclusion: remains of a man, age category adultus II (30–40 years). 3.2.6 Grave G The skull, the left arm and a part of the legs are missing. We have found the axial skeleton, the right arm, the pelvis and a part of the long leg bones. The skeleton was robustly built and showed marked muscle attachments. The sex marks on the pelvis clearly point to a male; the right femur is stenomeric, the left femur eurymeric, the right tibia eurycnemic. The body Figure 12. Český Brod – Prokopa Velikého Street, in front of house No. 407, grave F: Myositis ossifcans traumatica of the right femur, photographed by P. Stránská. Figure 13. Český Brod – Prokopa Velikého Street, in front of house No. 407, grave G: compression fracture of Th6, photographed by P. Stránská.
image/svg+xmlIANSA 2017 ● VIII/1 ● 59–75Jan Frolík, Petra Stránská, Jitka Votrubová, Barbora Emmerová, Daniel Vaněk: People “on the Margin”: A Medieval Cemetery in Český Brod – Malechov (Central Bohemia) 71 height of 168.8 ± 4,5 cm is above average. We have found a number of pathological phenomena: slight osteochondrosis of Th7–8, an ostephyte at Th10, a posttraumatic compressive fracture of Th6 (Figure 13), and cortical defects on the right-side tuberositas radii at the insertion of the musculus biceps brachii. Conclusion: remains of a man, age category adultus II – maturus I (35–50 years). 3.3 Radiocarbon Dating The bone samples were collected from three graves (graves A, C1 and C2 – the pieces of tibia) and they were subjected to radiocarbon dating for verifcation of archaeological dating. Samples were prepared in the laboratory of the Institute of Nuclear Physics in Prague and then sent to the AMS measurements in the workplace HEKAL ATOMKU in Debrecen, Hungary, the international code Deba (Světlík 2016).Measurement provides these results. Grave A is dated based on calibrated data with a probability of 95.4% within the range 1444 to 1634 AD (57.3% probability of being from 1444 to 1528 AD, and with a 38.1% probability from 1553 to 1634 AD). Grave C1 is dated with a probability of 95.4% within the range 1450 to 1635 AD (46.6% probability of being in the period 1450–1531, and 48.8% probability in the period 1539–1635). The tomb C2 is dated with a probability of 95.4% within the range 1461 to 1638 AD.This dating is consistent with the conclusions of the analysis of the archaeological material. It leans the dating towards the older part of the interval of the graves dating (A grave – 1444–1528 AD; grave C1 – 1450–1531 AD). Approximately the same dating was even given by a coin from the flling of grave A. 3.4 DNA Analysis Bone samples are considered to be among the most difcult forensic samples used for DNA identifcation; therefore, these samples have a relatively high risk of false-positive or false-negative results (Hagelberg et al. 1991; Adler et al. 2011). DNA examination of the skeletons from graves A and F focused on the Y-chromosomal STRs with the aim of obtaining a haplotype usable for the prediction of Y-chromosomal haplogroups. 3.4.1 Cleaning Tooth samples were cleaned by a toothbrush and washed with warm water. The samples were then transferred to a 50-mL tube and further chemically cleaned by inversion for 30 seconds in 5% commercial bleach, followed by 2–3 washes in distilled water (molecular biology grade), one thorough wash in 96% ethanol (Vanek et al. 2009) and left to air-dry. 3.4.2 Sampling Tooth dentine used for DNA extraction was extracted using dental micro tools as described by Gilbert (Gilbert et al. 2003). See Figure 14. 3.4.3 DNA extraction DNA extraction was performed using a PrepFiler® BTA Forensic DNA Extraction Kit (Life Technologies, USA) from a starting amount of 10–30 mg dentine. The recommendations of the manufacturer were followed with the exception of the initial incubation (PrepFiler BTA Lysis Bufer, 1M DTT, and proteinase K), which was extended from the recommended 2 hours to overnight. The extracted DNA was further cleaned using a OneStep™ PCR Inhibitor Removal Kit (Zymo Research, USA). 3.4.4 DNA quantitation Extracted DNA was quantifed by real-time PCR (SYBR® Green assay, target sequence ALU transposable element, amplicon size 63 base) using the 4N6 Quant kit (Forenzni DNA servis, Czech Republic) on a MasterCycler ep realplex S instrument (Eppendorf, Germany). 3.4.5 PCR amplifcation The PCR amplifcation was performed using the AmpFLSTR Yfler PCR Amplifcation Kit (Life Technologies, USA). The PCR reaction was as follows: total volume of 25 µl, 2.5 µl STR boost (Biomatrica, USA), and a sample volume of 7.5 µl. We used the recommended protocol with an increased number of cycles to 32 cycles (MasterCyclerR ep gradient S thermocycler, Eppendorf, Germany). Figure 14. Tooth dentine extraction using dental micro-tools.
image/svg+xmlIANSA 2017 ● VIII/1 ● 59–75Jan Frolík, Petra Stránská, Jitka Votrubová, Barbora Emmerová, Daniel Vaněk: People “on the Margin”: A Medieval Cemetery in Český Brod – Malechov (Central Bohemia) 72 3.4.6 Post PCR cleaning The PCR product was cleaned and concentrated using Amplicon Rx™ (Independent Forensics, USA). 3.4.7 Fragment analysis Amplifed STR fragments were separated on an ABI PRISM 310 Genetic Analyzer (Life Technologies, USA) under standard conditions. Samples were injected (5 kV injections) for 10 seconds. The resulting data were analyzed using GeneMapper ID software, version 3.2 (Life Technologies, USA) with an analysis threshold of 50 relative fuorescent units (RFU). 3.4.8 Y-haplogroup prediction For all haplotypes, Y-chromosome haplogroups were predicted using the method described by T. W. Athey (2005).Both samples tested provided a sufcient amount of DNA for the analysis. The results of quantifcation are summarized in Table 1.The resulting electopherograms (EPGs) were free of contamination signs and artifcial peaks, and the peak heights were sufcient for reliable data analysis. Table 2 summarizes the partial Y-chromosomal STR haplotypes. Y-chromosome haplogroups were successfully predicted for both samples. The individual from grave A belongs to the Y-chromosome haplogroup R1a and the individual from grave F belongs to haplogroup R1b. The predicted haplogroups R1a and R1b and individual haplotypes do not match with the results that are common for Jewish or Roma people (Vaněk et al. 2016, 191–196). The more precise determination of the geographic origin using Massive Parallel Sequencing was not performed due to the limited amount of extracted DNA. 4. Discussion4.1 Archaeology What we appear to have here is a grave group from the 15 th century, which was situated outside the usual burial grounds (cemeteries), on the margin of the suburban dwellings, on or near one of the main roads to and from the town. Based on the archaeological fndings and the historical context, we can formulate a number of hypotheses about the deceased. A: A group of soldiers . This interpretation would suppose that most or all the deceased were men, some of which were with traces of post-traumatic changes on the bones. The position at the arterial road is in accordance with such a theory. However, the repeated use of this burial site, which enabled the development of a stratigraphy of graves; contradicts this theory. The historical accounts describe the long presence of military units in the town and its vicinity. During the Hussite Wars – which in addition predate the graves (at least according to the pot sherds) – Český Brod was conquered twice: in 1421, within a couple of days, and in 1434, within one day. However, there are no hints of a military presence between the second half of the 15 th century to the beginning of the 16 th century, i.e. virtually until the Thirty Years’ War. Also, military graves or cemeteries that have been excavated in the past look diferent. Either they are mass graves, for example, as the victims of some battle ( e.g. Eickhof, Schoper 2012), or cemeteries adjacent to military camps (the camp of the Swedish army, for example, at the Riding School of Prague Castle in 1648–9; Blažková-Dubská 2006). B: A group of people that were killed all at once or as victims of a disaster. This option is favoured by the position at the road, but does not conform to the long-term burials at the site. We would have to presuppose a repeated cause of death of the deceased. C: A group of people (contagiously) sick in consequence of an epidemic. The arguments are the same as in the preceding case. There was a hospital in the town at St Mary Magdalene’s Church on the Arnošt z Pardubic Square since 1359, with an isolation ward from the 16 th century onwards (Dvořák 1992, 28–29). However, we do not have any indications that the dead were buried separately, and such a separate burial ground would have included burials of both men and women. Table 1. The results of DNA quantitation using real-time PCR (SYBR Green assay, target sequence ALU transposable element, amplicon size 63 base). SampleDNA concentration ng/ulTotal amount of DNA Grave A (16mg dentine)0.0032839.36 pgGrave A (21mg dentine)0.0020026.00 pgGrave F (42mg dentine)0.0004010.00 pgGrave F (27mg dentine)0.0010816.00 pg Table 2. Partial Y-chromosome STR haplotypes obtained for samples tested. Grave AGrave F DYS456 16DYS389I1313DYS390 25DYS389II DYS4581716DYS1914 DYS385a 14DYS385b DYS39313 DYS3911110DYS43912 DYS635 23DYS392 GATA H4712DYS437 DYS438 11DYS4481920
image/svg+xmlIANSA 2017 ● VIII/1 ● 59–75Jan Frolík, Petra Stránská, Jitka Votrubová, Barbora Emmerová, Daniel Vaněk: People “on the Margin”: A Medieval Cemetery in Český Brod – Malechov (Central Bohemia) 73 D: ethnic minorities (Jews, Gypsies) . The Jewish burial rite is very strict in the position of the buried person and in the keeping of spaces between diferent graves. The area of a grave would be protected against any disturbance from later graves by marking it with stones or a stone plate (Wallisová 2002; Cymbalak, Staňková 2014). Romany (Gypsies) are attested in Bohemia for the frst time in 1416 (Šmahel 2002, 470), but we do not know of any Romany cemetery that could be used as a comparison for the studied graves. e: the executed . This would be in accordance with the simple or irreverent position of the skeleton in grave A. However, there was no high (“blood”) court in Český Brod, and we do not know whether there was a place of execution. Cemeteries related to execution often show burials with separated heads, incomplete skeletons, traumatic efects on bones showing the burial of those beheaded, of individual bones (Mašková 2005; Mašková, Michálek 2006; Sokol 2003). F: Heterodoxy. This cannot be archaeologically proven. We know from written sources only that the parish could have banned heterodox persons from being buried in the Christian cemetery (Unger 2000, 350), and they would have to look for a burial place outside the usual cemeteries. Based on this assumption we could interpret this grave group. G: People on the margin of society. Various people of both sex belong to this group. In the case of women, we are dealing with prostitutes, single mothers, mothers of illegitimate children, etc. There is a broader range of men (beggars, vagabonds, cattle drovers, thieves, etc. – Geremek 1999; Šmahel 2002). At least, some members of this group were not buried in regular cemeteries. Written sources mention these people only in general; namely, in the case of criminal acts (Blažková-Dubská 2005; Čechura 2009; Mašková 2009). 4.2 Anthropology Grave A: Remains of a 45–60-years-old male ( maturus I–II). The autopsy shows degenerative-growth changes of the spine in accordance with his age; however, that may as well be a sign of greater physical stress, especially in the lower part of the cervical spine (C7), which normally shows a minimum of spondylosis (Stloukal, Vyhnánek 1976). Broken ribs and broken radius are the results of injury; the pathology of the left wrist can also be proof of a post-traumatic situation or of MTB ( Mycobacterium tuberculosis ), and the cortical defects of the clavicles a reaction to above-average strain on the shoulder girdle (Beňuš, Masnicová 2015). Grave B : Remains of a male, age category senilis . Forestier’s disease (difuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis; DISH) represents a systemic disease with unknown cause increasing in age. It is sometimes connected with metabolic disorders, such as obesity or diabetes. In the literature, it is cited twice as more often in men than in women (Verlaan et al. 2007). Ankylosing spondylitis (Bekhterev’s disease) represents a progressive infammatory disease of the spine, the costovertebral and sacroiliacal joints, with an unknown cause. It aficts men twice as often as women between the 15 th and 30 th year of life (Ortner 2003). The healed ribs lay witness to the experience of traumas. Grave C2: Unidentifable individual, probably male (?), age category adultus II – maturus I (35–50 years). With all probability, the adhesion of the foot bones is post-traumatic. Grave F: Male, age category adultus II (30–40 years), heterotopic ossifcation ( myositis ossifcans traumatica ) can either be the result of an injury or have developed at this typical location – on the transition between the proximal and medial third of the femur diaphysis – as a result of chronic stress in the area of the thigh adductors, i.e. through horse riding (Stloukal, Vyhnánek 1976) .Grave G: Male, age category adultus II – maturus I (35–50 years). Cortical defects on both arms may be interpreted as the result of some higher stress on the shoulders, in connection, for example, with the lifting and carrying of heavy loads; compressive fractures are most often caused by falling (Ortner 2003).The group of six skeletons from Český Brod consists of the remains of fve men and most probably a sixth man. They belong to various age categories; most of them show robust bodies with marked muscle attachments, which mostly corresponds to great physical efort. Five of the skeletons show numerous pathologies of various causes. Degenerative growth changes of the spine (graves A and G) correspond to the age of the deceased and are connected with overall aging. A number of changes can however be better explained by traumatic experiences: the injuries to the ribs in individuals A and B, the healed fracture of the radius in individual A, the adhesion of the talus and heel bone in C2, traumatisation of the thigh adductors and the adhesion of the hand phalanges in individual F, and the compressive vertebra fracture in individual G. Ankylosis of the wrist in individual A may be the result of a trauma, though more likely the expression of tuberculosis. If found separately, we would consider each case most probably a chance fnd; however, such an accumulation of post-traumatic diagnoses on such a small assemblage of skeletons does not look like being a coincidence. Additional pathologies may be related to the higher physical stress of specifc groups of muscles in connection with repetitive activities or work; this relates to the cortical defects on the clavicles, ulnae and radii of individuals A and G.The abovementioned fndings lead to the hypothesis that these were not members of a town population, but people whose way of life was exposed to certain physical activities ( e.g. the carrying and lifting of heavy loads, horse riding, etc. ), and to the greater likelihood of physical injuries, i.e. they lived in the landscape or on the margin of society and witnessed more violence. 4.3 DNA Research The quality and quantity of DNA obtained from an aged biological specimen is often strongly infuenced by the environmental factors (Vanek et al. 2015). On the other hand, partial STR profles can be considered as one of the characteristic signs of DNA-typing results from old
image/svg+xmlIANSA 2017 ● VIII/1 ● 59–75Jan Frolík, Petra Stránská, Jitka Votrubová, Barbora Emmerová, Daniel Vaněk: People “on the Margin”: A Medieval Cemetery in Český Brod – Malechov (Central Bohemia) 74 bone samples (Vanek 2007; Ambers 2014) and help with the sample authentication. Partial Y-chromosomal STR haplotypes obtained from the samples enabled us to predict the Y-chromosome haplogroups. Both haplogroups are the most frequent ones in the Czech population (Zastera et al. 2010; Ehler et al. 2011). The Y-chromosome haplogroup-prediction method used utilizes the fnding that the pattern of STR alleles in persons with the same haplogroup is similar (Athey, 2005). This allele frequency approach is not so precise as SNP typing (Karafet 2008) but STR typing not only provides higher robustness for compromised samples but also enables the relatedness of male lineages to be compared (Vanek et al. 2009). Another possible DNA-typing technology would be Massive Parallel Sequencing (MPS) ( e.g. Gamba 2014) but there also exists a minimum DNA input threshold and both samples tested would not qualify for a successful MPS testing. 5. Conclusions Only if the archaeological observations are taken in conjunction with the results of the anthropological and genetic analyses is it possible to make statements on the archaeologically-formulated hypotheses. The presence of male burials only (with a single possible exception) is exceptional and unexpected – even in cases of criminal acts, accidents (hypotheses B and C) or heterodoxy (hypothesis D) – but would, however, well correspond to soldiers (hypothesis A). It would also not be contradicted by the varying age of the buried, nor by the occurrences of healed injuries or mechanical stress from horse riding (grave F). A military “occupation”, however, is inconsistent with pathologies that would exclude any engagement in combat (graves A and B). The genetic analysis has excluded any evidence that the buried were members of a minority (hypothesis E). The buried assemblage best corresponds to a group of people on the margins of society (beggars, vagabonds, the poor, etc. – hypothesis G), in which physical stress, resulting in the injuries, and frequent illnesses are to be expected. The prevalence of men is typical of similar groups (Šmahel 2002; for examples from abroad, see Geremek 1999). This conclusion is supported by the presence of the fake coin in one grave, because the incidence of this type of currency would probably be expected in a similar group.Life on the margins of society (a marginal position) often corresponds to an actual life living on the margins of settlements. It is highly improbable that these people lived for any length of time in any single town (perhaps with the exception of smaller groups in hospitals). They are also less often mentioned, or even under-mentioned, in written sources. We can sometimes fnd general statements on the existence of this group of people; however, information on the fates of individuals is extremely rare – which is one of the reasons why archaeologists do not usually look for them. Acknowledgements This article is part of a project by the Czech Science Foundation 14-36938G “Středověká populace v centru a na venkově. Archeologie, bioarcheologie a genetika na pohřebištích Pražského hradu, středních a východních Čech” (Mediaeval Population in the Centre and Country: Archaeology, Bioarcheology and Genetics of Cemeteries of Prague Castle, Central and Eastern Bohemia). References ACSÁDI, G., NEMESKÉRI, J. 1970: History of human life and mortality. Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest.ADLER, C. J. et al. 2011: Survival and recovery of DNA from ancient teeth and bones, Journal of Archaeological Science 38.5, 956–964.AMBER, A. et al. 2014: Autosomal and Y-STR analysis of degraded DNA from the 120-year-old skeletal remains of Ezekiel Harper. 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